Viking longships were not merely instruments of war. They were the backbone of an entire society.

These vessels carried merchants across the Baltic, farmers along the Norwegian coast, warriors into foreign rivers, and explorers across open ocean. Without longships, the Viking Age as we understand it would not have existed.

Developed in Scandinavia between roughly the late eighth and mid-eleventh centuries, longships were perfectly adapted to the landscapes the Norse people called home.

Norway鈥檚 deeply indented coastline, its long fjords, and its countless islands made water travel faster, safer, and often more reliable than overland routes. While much of Europe still relied on poor roads and slow land transport, the Viking world moved by sea.

The longship was the solution. Light, fast, flexible, and astonishingly seaworthy, it allowed crews to sail across the North Sea, row deep inland, and land directly on open beaches.

This unique combination of speed and access gave the Vikings their advantage, not only as raiders, but as traders, settlers, and explorers.

The Sea as a Highway in the Viking World

To understand the importance of Viking longships, it helps to forget modern ideas of borders and roads.

In the Viking Age, water connected communities far more effectively than land. Rivers functioned as highways, coastlines as corridors, and sheltered fjords as natural harbours.

In Norway in particular, longships were essential. Steep mountains and narrow valleys made overland travel slow and dangerous, especially in winter. Coastal sailing, by contrast, allowed people to move efficiently between settlements, transport goods, and maintain social and political ties across long distances.

This maritime orientation shaped Viking society. Ship ownership conveyed status. Kings and chieftains measured power not only in land or wealth, but in the number and quality of ships they could command. Control of ships meant control of movement, trade, and military force.

Longships were therefore not exceptional objects reserved for war. They were everyday tools of mobility in a world defined by water.

What Makes a Viking Longship a Longship

What sets Viking longships apart is not a single feature, but a carefully balanced combination of design choices that made them uniquely versatile.

Longships were clinker-built, meaning their wooden planks overlapped like scales and were fastened with iron rivets. This method produced a hull that was both light and flexible. Rather than resisting waves with brute strength, the ship moved with the sea, reducing the risk of catastrophic damage in rough conditions.

A shallow draft allowed longships to sail in surprisingly little water. They could move up rivers, cross shallow bays, and be pulled directly onto beaches. This eliminated the need for ports or harbours and made sudden landings possible almost anywhere along a coastline.

Longships were symmetrical, with similar bow and stern shapes. This meant they could reverse direction quickly without turning, a valuable advantage in confined waters or during combat.

Combined with oars and a square sail, crews could switch seamlessly between rowing and sailing depending on wind and conditions.

The result was a vessel capable of coastal hopping, river travel, and open-sea voyages, something few contemporary ships could match.

Types of Viking Longships (And Why the Labels Are Complicated)

Modern discussions of Viking ships often divide longships into neat categories such as karvi, snekkja, skeid, and drakkar. These terms are useful, but they simplify a more complex reality.

The Vikings themselves did not work from a strict classification system, and ship designs varied depending on purpose, region, and period.

That said, archaeologists and historians generally group longships into broad types based on size, capacity, and use.

Karvi

The karvi was among the smaller longships and one of the most versatile. These vessels were commonly used for coastal travel, fishing, transport, and local trade.

Their relatively modest size made them easy to crew and well suited to shallow waters. Some karvi may also have been used for military purposes, particularly in regional conflicts.

One of the most famous Viking ships ever discovered, the Gokstad ship, is often associated with this category despite being larger than many typical karvi.

Excavated in Norway in 1880, it dates to around the late ninth century and demonstrates just how capable even medium-sized Viking ships could be. Its seaworthiness suggests it was fully capable of long ocean crossings.

Snekkja

The snekkja was a sleeker, faster vessel, often associated with warfare and long-distance expeditions.

Longer and narrower than many karvi, it carried larger crews and excelled in deeper waters. These ships were fast under both sail and oar, making them ideal for surprise attacks and rapid movement along coastlines and through fjords.

Skeid

Larger still was the skeid, a type of warship associated with kings and powerful chieftains. These vessels carried substantial crews and projected power as much through their presence as through their military capability.

One of the most impressive examples ever found, , discovered in Denmark in the 1990s, measured around 37 metres in length and dates to the very end of the Viking Age. Ships of this scale represent the peak of Viking shipbuilding.

Drakkar

The drakkar, or dragon ship, occupies a more ambiguous place in history. Often described as being adorned with carved dragon heads and elaborate decoration, these vessels loom large in popular imagination.

While such carvings did exist, especially for ceremonial or elite ships, the term itself may have been more symbolic than technical. Dragon imagery likely served to intimidate enemies and invoke protection rather than define a specific ship type.

Built by Experience, Not Blueprints

Viking shipbuilders did not work from written plans or technical drawings. Instead, shipbuilding knowledge was passed down through generations by practice, observation, and memory. Each vessel was shaped by eye and experience rather than measurement alone.

Timber selection was crucial. Oak was highly valued for keels and structural elements due to its strength and durability, while pine and other softwoods were often used elsewhere.

Trees were chosen carefully, sometimes shaped while still growing, to produce naturally curved timbers suited to specific parts of the hull.

Construction began with the keel, the backbone of the ship, followed by the stem and stern posts. Planks were added gradually, riveted together and caulked with wool or animal hair soaked in tar. The finished hull was light but strong, capable of flexing under strain rather than breaking.

Sails were made from wool and required enormous labour to produce. Although no complete Viking Age sails survive, experimental archaeology suggests they were large, heavy, and highly effective, allowing ships to travel long distances with relatively small crews.

Life On Board a Longship

Life aboard a Viking longship was demanding and uncomfortable by modern standards. There were no cabins, no bunks, and little shelter. Crew members sat on rowing benches that doubled as storage chests for personal belongings.

Rowing was exhausting work, particularly on long journeys or in calm conditions. When sailing, crew members still had to manage rigging, steer, and remain alert to changing weather. Sleeping was done wherever space allowed, often wrapped in cloaks for warmth.

Food was simple and preserved for long voyages. Dried fish, meat, grain, and butter formed the basis of onboard meals. Fresh water was carefully rationed, and stops along the coast were often necessary to resupply.

Despite these hardships, longships fostered a strong sense of shared purpose. Crews relied on each other completely, whether trading abroad, exploring unknown waters, or heading into battle.

Sailing Without Maps: Viking Navigation

One of the most remarkable aspects of Viking seafaring is how effectively longships were navigated without maps or compasses.

Viking sailors relied on an intimate knowledge of the natural world. They observed the sun, stars, wind patterns, sea colour, wave behaviour, and wildlife. The presence of certain birds or the smell of land carried on the wind could indicate proximity to shore.

Archaeological finds suggest that simple sun compasses or sundials may have been used to track direction during daylight hours.

There is also ongoing debate about the use of sunstones, crystals that may have helped locate the sun in cloudy conditions. While intriguing, such theories remain contested and should be treated with caution.

What is clear is that Viking navigation depended on accumulated experience and oral knowledge rather than instruments alone. Routes were learned, shared, and refined over generations.

From Fjords to Open Ocean

Perhaps the greatest achievement of Viking longships was their ability to operate across vastly different environments.

These ships navigated Norway鈥檚 narrow fjords, crossed the North Sea to the British Isles, followed rivers deep into continental Europe, and carried settlers to Iceland, Greenland, and beyond. The same fundamental design worked in sheltered waters and open ocean alike.

This adaptability explains how relatively small Scandinavian communities exerted such a wide influence during the Viking Age. Longships did not merely enable raids. They enabled sustained contact, trade networks, and migration on a scale previously unimaginable.

What Archaeology Has Revealed

Much of what we know about Viking longships comes from archaeological discoveries, particularly ship burials and submerged wrecks. In Norway, finds such as the Gokstad and Oseberg ships have provided invaluable insight into construction techniques, decoration, and symbolism.

These ships, now displayed at the聽soon-to-be-reopened in Oslo, reveal both the practical and ceremonial roles ships played in Viking society. Ship burials in particular highlight how closely vessels were associated with status, identity, and the afterlife.

One of the most dramatic Viking ship burials ever discovered in Norway is the Myklebust ship, found at Nordfjordeid on the west coast.

Unearthed in 1874, the burial mound contained the remains of a vast longship believed to have belonged to a powerful local ruler, possibly a king. Although the ship itself had been burned as part of the burial ritual, thousands of rivets and fragments allowed archaeologists to reconstruct its size and form.

Based on these findings, the Myklebust ship is thought to have been around 30 metres long, making it one of the largest Viking ships ever identified in Norway.

A full-scale reconstruction now dominates the visitor centre at Sagastad Viking Center, where the ship has been brought back to life as a powerful reminder of both Viking craftsmanship and the ceremonial importance of ships in Norse society.

Unlike museum displays behind glass, the reconstructed vessel offers a visceral sense of scale, ambition, and prestige, reinforcing the idea that longships were symbols of authority as much as practical tools.

Experimental archaeology, including full-scale replicas sailed across historic routes, has further demonstrated the remarkable seaworthiness of longships. These reconstructions consistently confirm that Viking ships were not crude or primitive, but highly refined tools shaped by centuries of maritime experience.

Why Longships Still Matter in Norway Today

Longships remain one of the most enduring symbols of Norway鈥檚 past. They appear in art, literature, festivals, and national iconography, representing exploration, resilience, and connection to the sea.

Modern Norwegians may travel by ferry, cruise ship, or offshore vessel rather than longship, but the maritime mindset endures. The same coastline that once shaped Viking shipbuilding still defines how people live, work, and move through the country.

Understanding Viking longships is therefore about more than appreciating ancient engineering. It is about understanding how geography, technology, and culture combined to create a society that looked outward, embraced the sea and left a lasting mark on European history.

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Language is more than words鈥攊t鈥檚 a gateway to culture, history, and identity. By exploring a language, we uncover the values, beliefs, and stories of its speakers.

We're taking a break from our articles on learning modern Norwegian to head back into the history books.

Today, we鈥檙e diving into Old Norse, the language of the Viking Age. For several centuries, this fascinating tongue was spoken across Scandinavia and beyond, leaving its mark on history, literature, and even modern languages.

An Introduction to Old Norse

Old Norse was a North Germanic language spoken in Scandinavia during the Viking Age, roughly from the 8th to the 14th century. It was the common tongue of the Norse people, who were known for their seafaring, exploration, and trading prowess.

At its height, Old Norse spread far beyond the borders of modern-day Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, following the routes of Viking expansion to places like Iceland, Greenland, the British Isles, and even parts of modern-day Russia.

Old Norse developed from Proto-Norse, the language spoken in Scandinavia during the earlier Germanic Iron Age.

Over time, it evolved into distinct dialects, primarily Old West Norse (spoken in Norway, Iceland, and the Faroes) and Old East Norse (spoken in Denmark and Sweden).

These dialects were mutually intelligible but displayed regional variations in vocabulary and pronunciation.

The Structure of Old Norse

Old Norse was a , with a complex system of grammar that included three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter) and four cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative).

Verbs were conjugated based on tense, mood, voice, and person, while nouns, adjectives, and pronouns were declined according to their grammatical case.

This structure allowed for flexibility in word order, as the endings of words often indicated their function in a sentence.

Additionally, Old Norse featured a rich vocabulary that reflected the everyday life, seafaring culture, and mythology of the Norse people.

Old Norse in Literature

One of the most enduring legacies of Old Norse is its rich literary tradition. The Icelandic sagas, written in Old Norse, are some of the most significant works of medieval European literature.

Read more: Heimskringla: The Icelandic Saga of the Early Norwegian Kings

These stories, which include the sagas of the Icelanders and the legendary sagas, provide insights into the lives, beliefs, and conflicts of the Norse people.

Other notable works include the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda, which contain myths, legends, and poetry about the Norse gods and heroes.

The Influence of Old Norse on Modern Languages

Old Norse has had a lasting impact on many languages, particularly English. During the Viking Age, Norse settlers and raiders brought their language to the British Isles, leaving behind hundreds of loanwords.

Everyday words like 鈥渆gg,鈥� 鈥渂read,鈥� and 鈥渨indow鈥� have Old Norse roots, as do place names ending in 鈥�-thorpe鈥� and 鈥�-by.鈥�

In Scandinavia, Old Norse evolved into the modern North Germanic languages: Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese.

Among these, Icelandic has remained the closest to Old Norse, with minimal changes in grammar and vocabulary over the centuries.

Learning Old Norse Today

While Old Norse is no longer a living language, it can still be studied and appreciated. Many universities offer courses in Old Norse, particularly as part of medieval studies or Scandinavian studies programs.

There are also online resources and textbooks available for those interested in exploring this ancient tongue. Learning Old Norse can deepen your understanding of Viking history, Norse mythology, and the development of Scandinavian languages.

Reconstructing the pronunciation of Old Norse relies on spellings in manuscripts, rhymes in poetry, and runic inscriptions. There was no standard spelling, and regional variations meant that reconstructed pronunciations can differ among scholars.

A practical approach is to use , which is similar to Old Norse. This method not only aids comprehension but also provides a foundation for learning Modern Icelandic.

It鈥檚 been said that a Viking and a modern Icelander could hold a basic conversation, as the grammar and core vocabulary have changed little over time.

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Ever wondered what it would be like to step back in time and live among the Vikings? In the heart of Norway's famous fjord landscape, Viking Valley offers exactly that.

This attraction in Gudvangen, a village nestled at the end of the UNESCO-listed N忙r酶ydfjord gives you a hands-on glimpse into Viking life.

I had the pleasure of exploring it recently, and came back with all the essential details to help you plan your visit.

What it really means to be a Viking

I visited Viking Valley with a group of British tourists, several of whom had questions. 鈥淎 Viking village? Are there still Vikings in Norway today?鈥�

The word 鈥淰iking鈥� is sometimes mistakenly assumed to be referring to an ethnicity, often by people claiming to have 鈥淰iking blood鈥�. In fact, the word is more of a job title.

Vikings were seafaring Scandinavian warriors and traders who lived during the Viking Age, roughly from the late 8^th century to the early 11^th century.

The word is derived from the Old Norse word 惫铆办颈苍驳谤, which refers to a person who participates in expeditions or raids.

So while it鈥檚 not necessarily wrong to say one is 鈥渄escended from the Vikings鈥� (although such a claim would be hard to prove) it鈥檚 definitely wrong to think of it as an ethnicity.

Many people living in Scandinavia during the Viking age were not Vikings, and no, there are no actual Vikings in Norway today.

Exploring Viking Valley: What to see and do

is located in Gudvangen, at the very end of the N忙r酶yfjord, which is a branch of the Sognefjord. I was a bit surprised when I got there that the entrance was right next to a decidedly not mediaeval-looking service station.

Viking Village tour: Keen on the Viking Village but don't have time to cruise there from Fl氓m? This聽聽is perfect for those tight on time.

The place is well designed though, because as soon as you enter the main building, you forget all about the service station and start noticing Viking imagery in every corner.

That building is where the gift shop is located, and where you can purchase tickets for your visit.

Once you鈥檝e got your tickets, you can step right through to the other end of the main building, into the ‘village' of Njardarheimr. This Norse name means 鈥渢he home dedicated to the god Njord鈥�.

Viking Valley is an immersive experience that lets you actively engage with the Viking way of life. As you wander through Njardarheimr, you'll find yourself surrounded by meticulously reconstructed buildings that reflect the 忙sthetic and atmosphere of the Viking Age.

The village is home to an international community of Viking enthusiasts who are passionate about sharing the history and culture of this fascinating era.

They bring the village to life, not only through storytelling but by demonstrating traditional crafts, cooking methods, and daily activities that were integral to Viking society.

One of the highlights of your visit will be 鈥淭he Viking Experience,鈥� a 45-minute guided tour included with your entrance ticket. In our case, our guide for the tour was Karl, and he really looked the part.

He told us all about Viking ships, the expeditions and raids they enabled, and the mark these raids left on history.

This was particularly relevant for our group, which mostly consisted of English people – England being a target of some of the most notorious Viking raids.

Other topics included the Viking鈥檚 religious beliefs, their dress and crafts, and their weapons. Speaking of weapons, the village lets you try your hand at archery and axe throwing, should that interest you.

Unlike a typical museum, Njardarheimr encourages hands-on interaction. You are free to touch most of the exhibits and ask questions directly to the villagers, who are eager to share their knowledge.

This approach makes learning both fun and memorable, especially for younger visitors.

Tailored experiences for a deeper dive

For those looking for an even more personalised experience, Viking Valley offers several tailored activities. You can book a private guide to take you on a tour of the village, ensuring a more intimate and detailed exploration.

There鈥檚 also the option to enjoy a Viking meal in one of the traditional houses, where you can taste dishes that would have been served over a thousand years ago while learning about Viking culinary traditions.

If you鈥檙e interested in trying your hand at blacksmithing, private sessions are available, offering a unique opportunity to learn the craft in a setting that couldn鈥檛 be more authentic.

These sessions tend to be booked long ahead of time so do contact the Village well ahead of time if this interests you.

For a truly unique experience, Viking Valley even offers traditional Viking weddings and vow renewals, conducted by the village chieftain.

The ceremony, filled with drumming, includes mead (obviously), and all the ancient rituals that make a Viking celebration so special.

The difficulty of recreating an authentic Viking experience

While Viking Valley in Gudvangen offers an immersive and engaging journey into the Viking Age, it's important to recognise the challenges and controversies that come with attempting to recreate an era based on limited historical evidence.

Historians have pointed out that much of what we think we know about Viking lifestyle is, in reality, educated guesswork, and this has led to some sharp criticism of Viking Valley.

One of the most vocal critics is historian and author Aud Farstad, who has and accused it of being historically inaccurate.

Farstad argues that the village's construction and presentation of Viking life are not based on historical facts.

She finds it particularly troubling that such a reconstruction exists within a UNESCO World Heritage site, stating that it feels more like a theme park than a serious historical project.

Another critic compared the buildings of the Viking village decorated with rune motives.

The core of the issue lies in the fact that there is very little concrete evidence about what Viking buildings, clothing, and food truly looked like. Much of what we do know is based on archaeological findings that are fragmentary at best.

This challenge is acknowledged by Frode Aas Tufte, the manager of Viking Valley. “Painting a picture of how things really were during that time is incredibly complicated, and builds upon a lot of guessing.”

No complete houses survive from the Viking age, so recreations inevitably involve a degree of interpretation.

In addition, buildings whose purpose is to host visitors need to be built according to modern needs and safety regulations, which will have an impact on authenticity.

Viking Valley: Our verdict

Despite the critics, Viking Valley does an incredible job of bringing history to life. The guides are knowledgeable and a visit to the village is guaranteed to leave you with at least some information you did not know previously.

While it鈥檚 impossible to recreate such a site with perfect historical accuracy, the guesswork that went into building the site enables a level of immersion that you just can鈥檛 get looking at genuine artefacts in a history museum.

Viking Village tour: Keen on the Viking Village but don't have time to cruise there from Fl氓m? This聽聽is perfect for those tight on time.

The visit is well worth it. It is both entertaining and educational, as long as you approach the experience for what it is: a well-meaning recreation, not an entirely accurate representation.

Practical information

You can get to Viking Valley easily by car, on the E16 road. By train, you can take the Oslo-Bergen line, switch in Myrdal to the legendary Fl氓m railway, and then catch a shuttle bus to Gudvangen.

Viking Valley is open year-round, with longer hours of operation from April to October. Entry price as of writing this is 235 NOK for adults and 105 NOK for children, with those under 4 getting free entry.

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County archaeologists have confirmed that it is the remains of an iron sword from the Viking Age. Inscriptions reveal the ancient weapon seems to be a rare type of iron sword made in the Frankish Empire.

The Viking Age (793鈥�1066 AD) was marked by seafarers exploring, trading, and raiding from Scandinavia across Europe. Known for longships and fierce warriors, Vikings impacted medieval society, established settlements, and influenced cultural exchange.

The Discovery on a Farm

鈥淲e were about to start sowing grass on a field that has not been plowed for many years,鈥� 脴yvind Tveitane Lovra, who found the weapon in Suldal, said in a .

The farmer began to clear the field, stumbling upon a piece of old iron. His first thought was to throw it away, before he realised what it could be. He contacted the County archaeologists, which Norwegian law requires.

鈥淭his is very rare,鈥� said Rogaland archaeologist Lars S酶gaard S酶rensen. 鈥淭he sword was the greatest status symbol in the Viking Age, and it was a privilege to be allowed to wear a sword.鈥�

The Viking Age Sword

The sword is 37 centimetres long, and about half of its length is missing. It is nevertheless surprisingly well-preserved, despite the Rogaland region having poorer preservation conditions for swords compared with other parts of the country.

鈥淭hat the sword has been lying in dense clay is why it is so well-preserved,鈥� explained Lars S酶gaard S酶rensen in a statement.

Fascinating Inscriptions

X-rays show the outlines of inscriptions with cross patterns and possibly letters on the blade.

鈥淭his means it could be a so-called VLFBERHT sword from the Viking Age or early Middle Ages. These are high-quality swords produced in the Frankish Empire (now Germany) marked with the weapon manufacturer's name,鈥� explains Sigmund Oehrl, professor of archaeology at the University of Stavanger.

鈥淲hen we first saw the sword, we were happy because it's not often we get swords from the Viking Age. When we saw the X-ray image, we were really excited. We did not expect there to be an inscription on the blade,鈥� says Oehrl enthusiastically.

The inscriptions the professor refers to suggest that the find is more special than it first appeared.

鈥淎s far as we know, about three to four thousand swords from the Viking Age have been found in Europe. The number of swords with these inscriptions, like the one found at Lovra, is only around 170. In Norway, around 45 such swords have been found. We are not aware of any similar swords being found in Rogaland before,鈥� said Oehrl.

Next Steps

Archaeologist Lars S酶gaard S酶rensen and his colleague Kim Thunheim have conducted investigations on 脴yvind Tveitane Lovra's farm following the rare sword find. They have not found any other artefacts in the area.

The sword has a lot of rust and must be conserved and further examined before they can date it more precisely and better explain what the inscriptions mean. At present, the team believes the sword was likely produced between the years 900 and 1050.

鈥淭here has been a concentration of sensational finds in recent years, including last year's gold find and the recent relic chest in the Cathedral,鈥� said conservator Hege Hollund from the Archaeological Museum in Stavanger.

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On August 27 1761, a Danish explorer started a small riot in the grand bazaar of Constantinople. Frederik Christian von Haven had been  buying Arabic and Persian manuscripts for the Danish royal library as part of an expedition sent to the Middle East by Danish king Frederik V.

This article was originally written by the University of London鈥檚 , and first published by our friends at . It is republished here with kind permission.

Von Haven was confident 鈥� perhaps overly so 鈥� in his abilities as a book collector. But on this particular day, things went wrong. 

When a Turkish bookseller offered him a book he didn鈥檛 like the look of, Von Haven tossed it aside dismissively.

At this, the booksellers at the bazaar  and came together to physically remove him from the area 鈥� trampling his hat in the process. The indignant explorer was left feeling disgruntled about the treatment he had endured.

The incident at the bazaar is a dramatic interlude in the diary kept by Von Haven throughout his journey with the other members of Denmark鈥檚 royal expedition.

It showcases Von Haven鈥檚 arrogance, both as a book collector and as a European in Constantinople. But what does it have to do with the study of the Viking Age?

The Study of Vikings

The sources that inform our knowledge of the Vikings come in many forms and languages. Among them are a series of geographical and eyewitness texts written in Arabic which discuss aspects of the Viking world.

They describe not only the Vikings at home in Scandinavia or聽raiding the coastline of al-Andalus, but also Viking traders and settlers across what is now Ukraine and Russia,聽.

Arguably the most famous Arabic source on the Rus is the travel account of Ahmad ibn Fadlan, a diplomat of sorts dispatched from Baghdad to Russia鈥檚 Volga river in AD921.

Read more: Miklagard: When the Vikings Reached Constantinople

Immortalised by the actor Antonio Banderas in聽The 13th Warrior聽(1999), Ibn Fadlan encountered a band of Rus slavetraders during his journey, and observed a funeral ceremony on the banks of the Volga.

 of the Rus and their funerary rituals has secured his reputation as an important source for the study of ritual and belief across the Viking world.

Nowhere else do we encounter  into this kind of Viking funerary ritual. 

The fullest surviving manuscript copy of Ibn Fadlan鈥檚 travel account was  by the historian .

Before that, European orientalists and Viking historians had spent just over a century piecing together this travelogue from the work of other geographers who had quoted him. 

Using geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi鈥檚 13th-century Arabic encyclopedia , which contained excerpts of Ibn Fadlan鈥檚 travel account, a Danish orientalist  which outlined a series of Arabic and Persian descriptions of medieval Scandinavia and Russia. 

The author, Jens Lassen Rasmussen, had used manuscripts in Copenhagen鈥檚 royal library to introduce Ibn Fadlan to Europe.

As a Dane writing about historic accounts of people he saw as his 鈥渇orefathers鈥�, Rasmussen understood Ibn Fadlan鈥檚 Rus to be Scandinavian rather than Slavic. 

While other researchers, then and since, have argued the opposite in terms of the identity of the Rus, cultural parallels and trade networks have led Viking historians to consider the Rus to have Scandinavian connections.

Von Haven鈥檚 Role

In the wake of Von Haven鈥檚 book-buying brawl in 1761, his Arabic teacher, a Syrian man named Fran莽ois Barout, persuaded him that it would be wiser to stay at home and let books come to him, rather than risk a repeat experience.

Under Barout鈥檚 supervision, booksellers visited the Dane with curated selections of manuscripts for him to browse.

This was how Al-Hamawi鈥檚 13th-century encyclopedia made its way into Von Haven鈥檚 possession 鈥� he bought it in a two-volume set for a relatively low price.

Al-Hamawi鈥檚 Dictionary of Countries did not immediately stand out as an important acquisition for the Danish royal library.

Indeed, Von Haven only bought the manuscripts because he knew Leiden University had a copy, and felt Copenhagen should follow suit.

But half a century later, it was these manuscripts which allowed Rasmussen to encounter Ibn Fadlan, and present him as a source which might interest Norse antiquarians. 

Ibn Fadlan鈥檚 account was quickly translated into other European languages, and as antiquarians  in the Vikings, Ibn Fadlan gained a reputation as the .

Viking scholarship  after the interest sparked by Rasmussen鈥檚 initial essay. The Copenhagen manuscripts purchased by Von Haven were soon forgotten in favour of other, more useful manuscript copies and more up-to-date research.

But without the boorish behaviour of a Danish visitor to Constantinople鈥檚 grand bazaar, Ibn Fadlan鈥檚 account of Rus on the Volga would not have surfaced in Denmark in time for a surge in interest in Arabic sources on the Vikings.

This article was originally written by the University of London鈥檚 , and first published by our friends at . It is republished here with kind permission.

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Modern TV shows have shot the popularity of the Viking Age off the charts. From famous characters to historic battles, there's a lot of stories that persist in popular culture.

But how much do you really know about the timeline of the Viking Age? There's so many myths and legends surrounding the time that it's hard to know what's true, and what's not.

We've done our best to leaf through the history books and speak to archaeologists and other history experts worldwide. The result? A list of fun viking facts, or at least, as close to facts as we can get!

Ready? Then get comfortable, because here are some fascinating tidbits with which to impress your friends and family.

1. The Icelandic Sagas are an important source of Viking facts

The , central to our understanding of Viking history, offer detailed narratives about the lives, adventures, and conflicts of the Norse people.

However, their historical accuracy is debated, as these sagas were penned centuries after the events they describe, often blending fact with folklore. This blend enriches the sagas but complicates their use as pure historical records.

Despite this, they remain invaluable for providing insight into Viking society, culture, and the values they held dear, acting as a bridge to the distant Viking Age.

2. We know a lot through the accounts of enemies

During the Viking Age, the Norse language was very much a spoken one. Viking runes were used, but this wasn't an everyday written language. As such, the Vikings wrote down almost nothing about their own adventures.

What does this mean? Well, aside from the sagas, much of our knowledge from the time is made up of accounts written down by people in lands that were conquered. This presents its own accuracy issues, of course.

One great example is the accounts of the attack on Lindisfarne written in the : “the woeful inroads of heathen men destroyed God鈥檚 church in Lindisfarne island by fierce robbery and slaughter.”

Writing several years later, the chronicler Symeon of Durham wrote: “They miserably ravaged and pillaged everything. They trod the holy things under their polluted feet, they dug down the altars, and plundered all the treasures of the church.”

3. Viking runestones still exist today

Vikings were skilled storytellers. Although stories were mostly passed down orally, they used runestones as a medium to tell tales of their deeds, honour the deceased, or mark territory.

These stones, found throughout Scandinavia, are adorned with runes and sometimes intricate carvings that offer a glimpse into the Viking worldview. Many of the best are found in Uppsala, Sweden.

4. Viking helmets did not have horns

This myth persisted for many years, but these days I think that most people already know that warrior helmets from the time did not have horns. In fact, some historians believe that painters invented the horned helmet as recently as the 19th century!

It is possible ceremonial or burial helmets had horns, although there is scant evidence for this. What we do know is that everyday helmets worn in battle most definitely did not.

5. Helmets may not have been commonplace

So few complete helmets have ever been found that some experts have speculated that Viking warriors may never have worn them in battles.

It's likely that some head protection was worn. Perhaps they wore leather headwear, which is much less likely to survive to be found by archaeologists.

6. Viking Age people were clean, not dirty

The thought of men aboard a boat for weeks on end might conjure up images of filth, but archaeological finds suggest otherwise. Tweezers, razors and combs are among the items to have been found in archaeological digs.

7. The word ‘Viking' is a verb

The term ‘Viking' has its roots in the Old Norse language, where it initially functioned as a verb rather than a noun.

Historically, ‘viking' referred specifically to the act of raiding and embarking on expeditions, indicating a dynamic process of exploration, plunder, and adventure.

This linguistic nuance points to the Vikings' own perception of their activities, emphasising the action and the enterprise of raiding foreign lands over the identity of the raiders themselves.

Over the centuries, the usage of the term evolved, transitioning from describing a particular activity to denoting the Norsemen known for engaging in such raids.

This shift reflects a broader change in how the Vikings were viewed, both by themselves and by others, from their actions to their cultural and ethnic identity.

8. Vikings gave us the word 鈥榖erserk鈥�

The Norse language used during the Viking Age heavily influenced the English we use today. One great example is the word ‘berserk'.

Warriors that entered battle in a trance-like state were known as berserkers. Some say they wore the skins of bears or wolves. It's worth thinking about next time you use the word!

9. Most Viking Age people were not warriors

Contrary to the warrior image popularised by media, most Vikings led peaceful lives, engaging in farming, crafts, and trade rather than raiding.

The majority were farmers in small communities, focusing on agriculture to sustain their society. Artisans also played a key role, creating goods for local use and trade.

Norse traders expanded their reach across Europe and beyond, exchanging a variety of goods, showcasing a complex network of trade routes. This paints a picture of Viking Age people as versatile settlers and traders, not just warriors.

10. The majority of men were farmers

Disappointing as it may be to fans of the stories, but everyday Viking lifestyle was actually pretty boring. Most Viking men never, or rarely, picked up a sword.

Most would have lived in peace and worked as farmers, growing barley, rye and oats and keeping cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.

11. The Vikings travelled to North America

The Icelandic-Norwegian explorer Leif Erikson beat聽Christopher Columbus, the person most often credited with discovering the ‘new world', by about 500 years.

The expedition led to the establishment of a Norse settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland, marking the first known European presence in North America.

This site, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, provides archaeological evidence of the Viking's short-lived outpost, showcasing their advanced seafaring skills and the extent of their explorations beyond their Scandinavian homelands.

12. They used honey as a sweetener

Honey held a unique place in Viking cuisine as their sole natural sweetener. This substance was not only cherished for its ability to sweeten food, adding a desirable sweetness to an otherwise savoury diet, but it also played a central role in the production of mead.

Mead, a made through the fermentation of water and honey, was highly prized among the Vikings for its taste and the social status it conferred during feasts and gatherings.

This beverage, often associated with Norse gods and legends, is still enjoyed today, serving as a link to the culinary traditions of the past.

The use of honey showcases the Vikings' ingenuity in utilising available natural resources to enhance their food and drink, further highlighting its importance in their daily life and cultural practices.

13. Viking Age people were keen skiers

Viking Age people were not only adept sailors but also skilled skiers, a fact supported by archaeological findings that trace the existence of rudimentary skis back at least 6,000 years.

By the era of the Vikings, skiing had evolved significantly, serving a dual purpose in their society.

It was a practical mode of transportation, enabling them to navigate the snow-covered landscapes of Scandinavia efficiently during the long winter months. Skis facilitated travel, hunting, and communication across vast distances.

It also became a popular recreational activity, where individuals and groups would ski for enjoyment. These activities likely helped to strengthen communal bonds and offered a much-needed respite during the cold, dark winter months.

14. There was a god of skiing

The Viking's veneration of , the skiing god, underscores the central role of skiing in their culture.

Ullr, shrouded in mystery due to limited medieval records, is prominently associated with skiing, archery, hunting, and defense in Norse mythology.

Typically depicted on skis with a bow, he represents skills crucial for survival and defense in Viking society, such as navigating snowy terrains and hunting.

Ullr is celebrated as the ski-god, bow-god, hunting-god, and shield-god, reflecting his significance across various aspects of Viking life.

His worship highlights the Vikings' respect for the natural world and their reliance on it for sustenance and protection, emphasizing Ullr's role in their spiritual and everyday lives.

15. There was no ‘Viking community'

Contrary to the notion of a cohesive ‘Viking community,' the Vikings were divided into numerous independent tribes across Scandinavia, each led by its own chieftain.

These tribes valued their autonomy, often resulting in conflicts over cooperation. While alliances did form, they were usually temporary, driven by necessity rather than a sense of unity.

Despite their fragmented society, Vikings were not completely isolated from each other. Trade was crucial, enabling tribes to access goods and resources they lacked, fostering connections through shared language, religious beliefs, and customs.

This facilitated a level of interaction and exchange, albeit without a unified identity. The Viking era is characterised by this complex network of independent tribes, emphasizing local leadership's role in navigating a competitive landscape.

The idea of a single Viking community most likely comes from the perspective of people living elsewhere.

16. Games were popular in the Viking Age

Norse people engaged in various games, including strategic board games, physical sports, and competitions of strength and skill to entertain and train.

‘Hnefatafl', an ancient Norse board game, epitomises strategic warfare, once rivalling chess in popularity.

Played on a grid, the game simulates a defending king striving to escape attackers. Its rules emphasize strategy, symbolizing Viking tactical prowess. Hnefatafl's legacy endures, reflecting the intellectual culture and societal values of the Vikings.

‘Knattleik' is said to have been played with sticks and a ball. While no detailed account of the rules exist, it's a reasonable assumption that the game bared some similarity to field hockey, or perhaps hurling.

17. They travelled as far east as Turkey

Vikings were known as great travellers. In fact, Norsemen made up a lot of the Byzantine Empire's Varangian Guard in modern-day Turkey.

It is believed that Harald Hardrada rose through the ranks to become聽the commander of the Guard in Constantinople. He would eventually return to become the King of Norway, and is often referred to as the ‘last great viking'.

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Whenever someone mentions Vikings, the general picture painted in the mind鈥檚 eye is of burly blonde dudes with horn-winged helmets hopping out of a boat, sword, and axe in hand, ready to burn, plunder, and do all sorts of nasty things to whoever crosses their path.

The truth of the matter, however, is that these acts of raiding really only took up a fraction of the time people spent during the Viking Age.

Relatively few people took part in these expeditions, with the majority staying at home to work the land.

In fact, the word ‘Viking' was reserved for those few warriors who set sail in search of trade or new lands, rather than to describe everyone who lived in the Scandinavian lands during the time period.

Some of those who stayed at home would later join the Vikings in new settlements, for example in Iceland or Scotland.

Working the farms

For the most part, the Norse people in the Viking Age were farmers. The majority of the crops they grew were things such as oats, barley, and wheat, with a number of vegetables taking root here and there.

Much like Norway today, there was plenty of livestock scattered across the countryside: pigs, cattle, sheep, horses, chickens, all the basics of European farms.

Plenty of other trades were alive and well at the time. Boat builders and wood craftsmen, blacksmiths, leather workers, fishers, even merchants were not uncommon occupations for people like Ragnar or Rollo.

Many people in the Viking Age would do some of the above, but as time went on and larger settlements came to be, there began to be some Norsemen who specialised in one or two particular trades.

Animal-based clothing

When it came to clothing themselves, Vikings were particularly fond of wool and lots of animal skins.聽Viking women were very skilled weavers, able to make beautiful patterns from wool dyed with plants.

For men鈥檚 fashion, it was pretty standard with pants and shirts of varying lengths. For women, the standard fashion was long woolen dresses.

There is plenty of debate on what the styles of the Vikings really were, as not much of their clothing has survived the battle with time.

Having said that, it can generally be assumed that the styles you see on television and in films are probably not historically accurate representations.

For one thing, the Vikings loved bling. Men and women were likely bedecked in rings, bracelets, necklaces, armbands, and so on. Beautifully crafted metals have survived well, and jewelry made from leather, bone, and wood was not uncommon either.

Simple living spaces

After a long day toiling in the fields, or at the end of a long voyage to haul back loot, plunder, and slaves, there was nothing better for a Viking than to kick up their feet at home.

One common misconception was that ‘Vikings' were one people. We often speak of them as a collective. But although the vast majority of Vikings were Norse, the reality was that they lived in many small, disparate communities.

In Norway, these would have been along fjords or on narrow sounds that would provide shelter, good fishing opportunities, and strategic defensive positions. For the chief enemies at the time were other Viking communities!

Viking longhouses were built of wood, mud, stone, or a collage of all the above. The home was generally shaped rectangular-ish and with a sweet hole in the roof to let out the smoke of the probably always burning fire.

Viking homes didn鈥檛 differ much from other structures around Europe of that time period, though they were much less grand than how they are often depicted, and perhaps with better methods of insulating the space to keep in the heat during those long, dark, and cold Nordic winters.

Food from the ocean and the farms

What did people eat? Unsurprisingly, fish made up a large portion of the Viking diet. They also had plenty of other proteins to choose from. Pork was the most popular, while horse meat kebabs likely graced many a table.

The main mealtime would often consist of a stew that had been simmering for most of the day, perhaps even longer. It would have been common for the stew to be in a state of constant renewal, lasting several days and topped up with whatever meat and vegetables were available.

Bread was made from the different grains they grew on their farms. Added to that were the fruits, berries, and nuts that could be foraged from around the farms and the mountains.

The only nuts that we believe the Norse obtained locally were hazelnuts. Walnuts seemed to form part of the diet, but these would have come from trading abroad.

Norse people kept cattle primarily for the milk. Aside from drinking the fresh milk, they made dairy products including butter and soft cheeses.

Still popular in Iceland today is , a yoghurt-like, sweet and sour soft curd cheese. It was a well-loved product in the Viking Age, highly regarded because of its ability to preserve protein for six months or longer.

Apart from milk and water, people in the Viking Age were fond of beer and mead. Norse beer would have been weak by modern standards, while mead is a form of honey wine.

Fun through competitive games

Like many other archaic societies, a lot of the entertainment came from sports such as wrestling, racing, and fighting games.

Vikings even had board games to occupy their time. Researchers suggest that the famous Isle of Lewis Chessmen were created right here in Trondheim before ending up off the coast of Scotland, although these are dated to be from the very tail end of the time of Vikings.

It can be assumed that these were grown out of a longer history of tabletop games. The best known ‘tafl game' (table game) in Scandinavia was ‘Hnefatafl.' It鈥檚 likely this is the game they played with the Viking Age gaming piece .

Lindisfarne was of course the location of the raid that most researchers take as defining the beginning of the Viking Age. Researchers believe the game piece (a small glass 鈥榗rown鈥�) is a rare archaeological link to early Norse raiders.

Warrior poets seem to have been commonplace as well. On many days the towns, the farm, or the great halls were filled with music, poetry, and storytelling.聽And, of course, the Vikings loved skiing and drinking mead!

Women in the Viking Age

Modern depictions of the era in popular TV and movie dramas have blurred our understanding of the role women playing during the Viking Age.

Recent archaeological discoveries have raised new questions, but the common belief is that despite a surprising amount of gender equality, the influence of women was mainly domestic. They were unlikely to join men in battle, although unlikely doesn't mean it never happened.

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In a time when Norway was a collection of smaller territories, each with its own ruler, Harald had an ambition to unite them all. Some say he actually did it for love.

But first a disclaimer: As usual with Viking history, it鈥檚 pretty hard to parse out fact from fantasy and 鈥渇acts鈥� have to be interpreted with a generous pinch of salt. Anyone claiming to give you the whole, unquestionable truth about Harald Fairhair is either lying or misinformed.

With that out of the way, let鈥檚 dust off the old sagas, check the archeological evidence and delve into the story of this famous Viking Age figure. Who knows, maybe we鈥檒l even find out how he got his nickname.

Harald Fairhair fought his decisive battle in 872

The famous battle credited for the unification of Norway was fought in Hafrsfjord, part of today鈥檚 Stavanger, in or around 872.

The sagas tell us that Harald, after inheriting Vestfold and the Opplands from his father, allied himself with the Earl of H氓logaland (that鈥檚 what they called Northern Norway back then).

Then, Harald is said to have gained influence in Tr酶ndelag before he attacked the sea kings in Southwest Norway. He won the battle and Norway was unified – the end.

But that simple story is not necessarily what happened. Some poems recounting the events have the basic setup of the battle the other way around: they say it was Harald who was attacked by kings coming from the East.

Either way, the reason for the battle was likely not the idea of unifying Norway but the control of the trade route between Western Norway and Kaupang, a Viking settlement near today鈥檚 Larvik. Controlling this trade route thanks to a foothold in Hafrsfjord would have meant lots of income for Harald.

Today, the battle is commemorated by a very cool monument called 鈥淪verd i fjell鈥� (Swords in Rock). You can see it just west of the city of Stavanger, in a nice little park by the water.

Harald Fairhair鈥檚 name is even cooler than you think

As nicknames go, 鈥淔airhair鈥� is not bad at all. But it鈥檚 probably even better than you think.

鈥淔airhair鈥� is a translation of the Norwegian 鈥淗氓rfagre鈥�, which itself comes from the Old Norse 鈥渉谩rfagri鈥�. 鈥淔air鈥� in English can mean many different things, but in this context it means 鈥減leasing to the eye鈥�.

The Norwegian word 鈥渇ager鈥�, though, means something more like 鈥渞eally, very beautiful indeed鈥�. So to be called H氓rfagre is an even nicer thing than to be called Fairhair.

Harald Fairhair got his nickname because of love – or not

Okay so we don鈥檛 really know why he was called Fairhair. A lot of what we know from that time came through oral history which was then written down, sometimes centuries later, and copied over and over.

Some historians think the 鈥渉谩rfagri鈥� nickname might have been a misreading, and its backstory just invented after the fact to explain it. But if we are to believe the tradition, Harald was really into a woman called Gyda Eiriksdatter.

This Gyda girl had high standards, it seems, because she declared that she wouldn鈥檛 have him until he had united Norway into one kingdom. Harald, obviously under the spell, agreed and vowed to not cut his hair until he had united Norway into one kingdom – and that鈥檚 why he was called Fairhair.

It鈥檚 a nice story to tell and repeat, but you don鈥檛 really have to try very hard to poke holes through it. I mean just because you stop cutting your hair doesn鈥檛 make it beautiful – especially in shampooless mediaeval times.

Most likely, Harald wanted to capitalise on the collection of small kingdoms in the Opplands he had inherited from his father, and on the fact that the Danes were weakened at the time. Of course it's possible that Gyda overheard Harald's plans and then said she wouldn't marry him until he had completed his mission.

Harald Fairhair beat Gandalf

You read that right! Harald Fairhair defeated Gandalf in battle.

We鈥檙e not talking about Tolkien鈥檚 wizard, of course, but it鈥檚 a pretty cool story regardless. Harald Fairhair became king at the age of twelve when his father, Halfdan the Black (Halvdan Svarte) died.

Halfdan was powerful but had enemies. One of them was a king ruling over a place called Vingulmark (essentially the Oslo fjord area).

This king鈥檚 name was Gandalf (Gandalv, in Norwegian). Halfdan defeated Gandalv, but then went on to die after falling through the ice on the Randsfjorden after a night of heavy drinking.

That gave Gandalf the opportunity to strike again. Luckily, Harald Fairhair received help from Halfdan's brother Gudtorm, and from a handful of berserkers (fearsome warriors wearing bear skins) and managed to defeat him.

Harald Fairhair: We don鈥檛 know for sure that he actually existed

We warned you at the beginning of this article: sources about Norwegian history in Viking times are pretty fuzzy. Harald Fairhair鈥檚 name is mentioned in many sagas, but these sagas don鈥檛 agree with each other on the details, and more importantly, they were written more than 200 years after the fact.

Through the 1800s and most of the 1900s, his existence as a historical character was accepted as a fact. That all changed when British historian Peter Sawyer started casting doubt on this accepted version of history.

That the sagas are inconsistent is one thing, but an even bigger problem is that there is not a single source from Harald Fairhair鈥檚 time telling us about him.

A view commonly held by historians today is that Harald may have been based on a real king named Harald, but that a lot of the details about him are either invented or a mashup of things that happened to different people.

In that sense, Harald Fairhair is a bit like England鈥檚 King Arthur – a mythical figure which may or may not have been based on a real person. Most likely, the myth of Harald Fairhair was concocted in the 1100s, to give legitimacy to the kings of the time who claimed their lineage went back all the way to this 鈥渇irst king of Norway鈥�.

Harald Fairhair is said to have been buried near Haugesund

Now that we told you he might not even have existed, let鈥檚 tell you about his grave. The most likely date for his death is thought to be the year 932. As was the custom at the time, he would have been interred in a burial mound.

This happened (or not) just north of today鈥檚 Haugesund. In 1872, one thousand years after Fairhair鈥檚 reported unification of Norway, a fundraiser was launched to celebrate the anniversary  by erecting a monument.

The fundraiser didn鈥檛 gather enough money, and Stortinget (the Norwegian parliament) had to pay the balance. But the monument to the kingdom鈥檚 鈥渢housand year existence鈥� can still be viewed there today.

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Some nicknames are endearing, some are a bit quirky, and some are downright frightening. The man we are telling you about today had a nickname that falls in the third category: Eric Bloodaxe.

He may sound like a fictional character straight out of a paperback novel, but Eric Bloodaxe is an all too real person from Viking history. So how did he earn such an intense moniker?

Let鈥檚 find out together as we unravel the real-life saga of Eirik Haraldsson, also known as Eric Bloodaxe: a man whose story is just as riveting as his name suggests. But hey, no spoilers just yet–scroll on to uncover the tale piece by piece.

Born into royal intrigue

So, first things first, where does this story fit into the Viking Age timeline? Eric Haraldsson was born around the year 895, the son of King Harald Fairhair (Harald H氓rfagre) and Queen Ragnhild Ericsdatter.

Harald had quite a few kids–over 20 by some accounts–but Eric had a special place among them.

What made Eric unique among his siblings is that he was the only one of Harald鈥檚 sons who was born to a queen. This little fact nudged him a tad higher in the pecking order.

King Harald knew that having so many male heirs could spell trouble, and to keep the peace, he made sure that each and every one of his sons would get royal titles and land in their own separate areas.

He did favour Eric though, and made sure he would be one step above all his siblings in terms of authority.

In the last years of his life, Harald even shared power with Eric, making him his co-regent. Evidence suggests that the way power was divided following Harald鈥檚 death suited neither the brothers nor Eric himself, and a bloody period followed in which many of the brothers lost their lives.

Details are fuzzy, but we do know that the brothers did not die alone – a large number of their fighters were killed with them in battle with Eric鈥檚 forces. It is that murderous rampage that earned Eric Bloodaxe his gory nickname.

Eric Bloodaxe鈥檚 reign in Norway

Eric was king of Norway for just around five years, and that includes the time he shared power with his father. By himself, he ruled for 2-3 years.

As is the case with many historical figures of that time period, we know little about what he did, and what we do know is clouded in uncertainty. Few Viking sagas tell us about him, and the ones that do don鈥檛 agree with each other.

A poem by Glum Geirason, which among other things dealt with Eric's Viking expeditions, is unfortunately lost. Another by Egil Skallagrimsson, survived, but provides no specific details about events in Eric's history – only vivid descriptions of battles and general combat.

According to the sagas, Eric was expelled from Norway because he continued his father's tough policies and was seen as a tyrannical king.

The battle he fought against his brothers also reportedly caused resentment (who knew people don鈥檛 enjoy being ruled over by a bloody tyrant?).

His successor as Norwegian king was his half-brother H氓kon, who especially relied on the Earl Sigurd Grjotgardsson of Lade–incidentally, Lade is a Trondheim neighbourhood known today mostly for its shopping mall. This line of succession suggests that Eric had conflicts with Sigurd.

But the sagas vary on whether H氓kon or Sigurd was the most active during the power shift. The image of Eric as an oppressor is particularly evident in Egil's Saga due to the animosity between the king and the author.

Many of Egil's verses about Eric and his sons are not kind, labelling him as “people's oppressor” and “lawbreaker”. At the same time, in one verse, Egil implies that it's Gunnhild (Eric鈥檚 wife) who is the evil spirit behind the wrongdoing.

Eric Bloodaxe: King of Northumbria

During his 20 year exile from Norway at the end of his life, Eric Haraldsson was King of Northumbria, England, ruling from the city of York.

It鈥檚 not clear exactly when this happened, as the various sources differ on the specifics, but he was king in York for at least two to three years, maybe longer (with a possible interruption in the middle of his reign).

We do know for sure that he was king there at some point though, because the sagas say so and because coins were found inscribed with the mention 鈥淓ricus Rex鈥� (Rex being Latin for 鈥渒ing鈥�).

Eventually, Northumbria was taken over by Wessex king Eadred, a previous ruler of the area who had never been too hot on Eric taking power. Eric Bloodaxe died in 954 or thereabouts.

Eric Bloodaxe鈥檚 successors in Norway

Meanwhile, in Norway, Eric鈥檚 wife Gunnhild, whom we mentioned earlier, was hard at work trying to make sure one of her sons would ascend to the throne.

While Eric was busy outside of the country, she was scheming to support her sons鈥� claim to the throne in opposition to H氓kon the Good and Sigurd the Earl of Lade – incidentally, 鈥渢he Earl of Lade鈥� (Ladejarlen in Norwegian) is now a .

Their efforts succeeded, and Eric鈥檚 son H氓kon became king in 961, with the support of Danish king Harald Bluetooth. This is the very same Bluetooth who would much later be immortalised by having a wireless tech standard named after him.

After the death of Eric Bloodaxe, it is said that his widow Gunnhild commissioned an unknown skald (poet) to write a grand poem about him, titled 鈥淓ricsm谩l鈥�. The poem depicts Eric鈥檚 entrance into Valhalla after his fall.

Historians are not convinced about its authenticity however. They suspect it might have been written much later and modelled after a different poem that was actually about his son H氓kon.

Eric Bloodaxe: A fantasy novel

If you鈥檇 like to stay a bit longer in the Eric Bloodaxe universe, you could pick up a copy of American writer Poul Anderson鈥檚 novel Mother of Kings, published in 2001. The book tells the story of Gunnhild, Eric鈥檚 wife, and is largely based on Egil鈥檚 Saga.

Be aware though that this is not historical fiction. The novel takes at face value the saga鈥檚 contention that Gunnhild had been taught magic by two Finnish wizards, so it falls into the historical fantasy category.

The novel describes Gunnhild as committing several morally questionable acts, again based on the information contained in the Sagas. The author does, however, explain her point of view and her reasons for acting as she did.

Who is your favourite figure from the Viking Age? Have you seen any good Viking-related shows that you would recommend? Let us know in the comments.

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While many people grew up with the narrative that Christopher Columbus was the first European to discover America, archaeological evidence unearthed in the 1960s paints a different picture.

Archaeological evidence found at the northern tip of Newfoundland proved that Europeans made it to North America in the 11th-century. That's hundreds of years earlier than previously thought.

Norse discovery in the 1960s

Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad, a Norwegian husband-and-wife archaeologist team, made the ground-breaking discovery. The team had been searching for Vinland, mentioned in the Norse sagas and long speculated about.

As it means “Wine Land” in Old Norse, Vinland had been assumed to be farther south where grapes would grow. However, this translation has long been up for debate, with the archaeologists believing it meant “land of meadows.”

Locals led the team to a group of mounds near a small fishing hamlet, which locals had apparently long called the “old Indian camp.”

The remains of wood-framed, peat turf buildings discovered during the decade- long excavation work are similar to those found from the same time period in Greenland and Iceland. The area also corresponds to journeys outlined in the Norse sagas.

The only Norse site in North America

The 1960s discovery of the former Norse settlement at L鈥橝nse aux Meadows forever changed our understanding of the Viking Age timeline.

Extensive archaeological research revealed timber-framed structures built with gabled roofs and covered with turf from the nearby peat bog. Both the building materials, construction style and layout of the buildings all followed characteristic Norse design.

Around 800 items of wood, bronze, bone and stone were discovered that shed light on the lifestyle of the settlers, while further confirming the Norse origin.

One of the first UNESCO World Heritage Sites

So important was the find to cultural heritage that L鈥橝nse aux Meadows became one of world鈥檚 first 12  when UNESCO began its program in 1978.

The program stated that L鈥橝nse aux Meadows is 鈥渢he first and only known site established by Vikings in North America and the earliest evidence of European settlement in the New World.鈥�

It went to say that as such, 鈥渋t is a unique milestone in the history of human migration and discovery.鈥�

The protected area covers a much wider area than where the Norse remains were found. Archaeological sites have been reburied to protect the remains from degradation.

Visiting L鈥橝nse aux Meadows today

Today, some of the original artifacts are on display . But most of what visitors will see is a recreation of what the original camp would have looked like.

The reconstructions are based on archaeological evidence, similar settlements in Greenland and Iceland, and information contained within the Norse sagas.

Visitors are guided around the site by costumed Viking Age reenactors telling the story of L鈥橝nse aux Meadows but also Viking Age life in general.

Some of this is done around a fire inside a reconstructed sod building, where you鈥檒l hear both heroic and tragic tales of battles and Norse sagas.

The Viking Age camp allows visitors to see how blacksmiths and cooks worked, with reproductions of many tools and everyday items.

Inside the more traditional visitor center, original artefacts including a cloak fastening pin and bone needle are on display, together with 3D models, audio recordings of the sagas, and a 2/3-scale replica Viking boat.

Fans of escape rooms will be delighted to hear of , the site鈥檚 very own twist on the popular activity. Booking in advance is essential for this attraction, inspired by the Vinland Sagas.

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